Enabling Employee Entrepreneurship in Large Technology Firms

Managers of large technology firms are routinely expected to improve the performance of their development projects. This expectation arises because of the need for firm competitiveness and because externalization of technology development through outsourcing and acquisition is an alternative to internal product projects (Granstrand and Sjölander, 1990; tinyurl.com/mhtrv77). Improvements can take the form of increased revenue from project outcomes, reduced project development costs, or reduced time to market. Entrepreneurial orientation describes the extent to which a firm is able to capture new value in the marketplace beyond its existing products, services, and customers (Covin and Slevin, 1989: tinyurl.com/6drqgjk; Lumpkin and Dess, 1996: tinyurl.com/qxsxa57; Miller, 1983: tinyurl.com/cus88fa; Schillo, 2011: timreview.ca/article/497). Can increasing the entrepreneurial orientation of the project development organization within a firm provide the required improvement in development project performance? How can managers in large technology firms apply the concept of entrepreneurial orientation to improve their project development performance? And Managers of development projects in large technology firms face a dilemma. They operate under pressure to achieve predictable quality, cost, and schedule objectives but are also expected to encourage their employees to act entrepreneurially. Given the uncertain nature of the entrepreneurial process, these managers often cling to existing practices and values and consequently inhibit their employees’ ability to act entrepreneurially.


Introduction
Managers of large technology firms are routinely expected to improve the performance of their development projects.This expectation arises because of the need for firm competitiveness and because externalization of technology development through outsourcing and acquisition is an alternative to internal product projects (Granstrand and Sjölander, 1990;tinyurl.com/mhtrv77).Improvements can take the form of increased revenue from project outcomes, reduced project development costs, or reduced time to market.
Entrepreneurial orientation describes the extent to which a firm is able to capture new value in the marketplace beyond its existing products, services, and customers (Covin and Slevin, 1989: tinyurl.com/6drqgjk;Lumpkin and Dess, 1996: tinyurl.com/qxsxa57;Miller, 1983: tinyurl.com/cus88fa;Schillo, 2011: timreview.ca/article/497).Can increasing the entrepreneurial orientation of the project development organization within a firm provide the required improvement in development project performance?How can managers in large technology firms apply the concept of entrepreneurial orientation to improve their project development performance?And Managers of development projects in large technology firms face a dilemma.They operate under pressure to achieve predictable quality, cost, and schedule objectives but are also expected to encourage their employees to act entrepreneurially.Given the uncertain nature of the entrepreneurial process, these managers often cling to existing practices and values and consequently inhibit their employees' ability to act entrepreneurially.
In this article, we examine the product development and entrepreneurship literature streams to identify the barriers that managers of development projects of large technology firms face in allowing employees to act entrepreneurially.We organize these barriers using the five components of entrepreneurial orientation: risk taking, proactiveness, innovativeness, competitive aggressiveness, and autonomy.Then, building on the literature and our combined 40 years of experience managing development projects in large technology firms, we provide recommendations to managers on how to overcome these barriers.
A better understanding of how to enable employees to act entrepreneurially will increase the entrepreneurial orientation of development projects in large technology firms.The relationship between entrepreneurial orientation and development project performance is expected to be curvilinear.Therefore, an increase in entrepreneurial orientation is expected to improve the performance of development projects up to a point after which it is expected to decrease it.This article will be particularly relevant to researchers interested in the relationship between entrepreneurial orientation and project performance as well as managers in technology firms who want to achieve their operational milestones while maximizing the entrepreneurial value creation of their employees.
The more people you have to ask for permission, the more dangerous a project gets.

Alain de Botton
Writer, documentary film maker, and entrepreneur

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Enabling Employee Entrepreneurship in Large Technology Firms

Walter Miron and David Hudson
how can managers overcome the barriers preventing development project team members from acting entrepreneurially in large technology firms?
In this article, we review the literature on entrepreneurial orientation and employee entrepreneurship.We propose how the components of entrepreneurial orientation can be understood at the development project level and then examine the obstacles to employee entrepreneurship within development projects using the component framework from entrepreneurial orientation.Finally, we provide a tool that managers of development projects can use to help their project members overcome the obstacles to employees acting entrepreneurially in large technology firms.Our intent is to better support employees who think and act entrepreneurially for the purpose of increasing the entrepreneurial orientation of project development organizations in the expectation that this increase will lead to better development project performance.

Entrepreneurial Orientation and Entrepreneurial Employees
The literature suggests that increasing the entrepreneurial orientation of a technology firm leads to increased firm performance (Rauch et al., 2009;tinyurl.com/ 3kjbwfr).That is, there is a relationship between a firm's ability to create and capture new value and the firm's overall profitability.The literature also indicates that the relationship between entrepreneurial orientation and firm performance may be curvilinear, and beyond some threshold, an increase in entrepreneurial orientation no longer improves firm performance and may have a negative impact (Schillo, 2011; timreview.ca/article/497).Consequently, there is a range where firms with low entrepreneurial orientation can benefit from some degree of improvement.
The components of entrepreneurial orientation include: 1. Risk taking: the willingness of the firm to commit of resources to projects with uncertain outcomes 2. Proactiveness: the degree to which the firm leads in its markets rather than follows 3. Innovativeness: the importance of technology and product leadership to the company 4. Competitive aggressiveness: the extent to which a company pursues competitors' markets 5. Autonomy: the extent to which the company allows and supports independent entrepreneurial action Entrepreneurial orientation has been studied through various techniques at the firm level using these attributes, which were developed from the idea that the "configuration" of the firm affected its ability to be entrepreneurial (Miller, 2011;tinyurl.com/6jjzdkx).In larger firms, configuration could include explicit decisions made concerning strategies, organizational structures, and operational processes as well as implicit attributes such as attitudes of executives.Of course, companies do not innovate; it is the employees who make a company innovative (Blank, 2013; tinyurl.com/adzqhdq).Therefore, it is the entrepreneurial actions of employees including how they do their jobs and how they contribute to project activities that ultimately contribute to the firm's entrepreneurial orientation.
Entrepreneurship research addresses where firms come from (Foss et al., 2007;tinyurl.com/d77uotf)and often focuses on the role of founders but does allow that employees of established firms can be entrepreneurial (Shane, 2012: tinyurl.com/aznwf4n;Thornton, 1999: tinyurl .com/m732z8g).One definition of employee entrepreneurship refers to the actions of employees participating in formal corporate venturing (Ireland et al., 2009;tinyurl .com/ltkqfo5)or intrapreneurship programs (Aldrich, 2005;tinyurl.com/7waf4y7).This definition includes a wide range of possible entrepreneurship-related activitiessuch as training, business diversification, internal process and technology innovation, creation of new divisions, recreation of existing divisions, and reallocation of resources -but emphasizes that the initiatives are led by management (Thornton, 1999;tinyurl.com/ m732z8g).
The literature also describes employee entrepreneurship outside of specific programs and management-directed activities.Foss, Foss, and Klein (2007;tinyurl.com/d77uotf)  ).This type of employee entrepreneurship is motivated, at least in part, by emancipation or taking control of one's environment rather than personal profit, although it may bring profit to the firm.That is, employees can become entrepreneurial as a reaction to constraints in their environment and the need to remove those constraints.In this definition, employee entrepreneurship is not a program but is voluntarily, day-to-day value creation that employees motivated by the opportunity to increase their control over their own immediate work environment may choose to pursue, or not.
Acts of emancipation by employees who are acting entrepreneurially include seeking autonomy, making declarations to share their activities, and authoring relationships with co-workers and others to increase support for their actions (Rindova et al., 2009;tinyurl.com/ l2htbbh).Such entrepreneurial employees are motivated to create value for themselves in terms of greater control over their environment but can also add value to their firms' products, services, or operations through the same actions.
We propose that entrepreneurial orientation may be applied to development projects within firms, rather than at the firm level, because a firm's projects contribute to its success in the market.The employees, in turn, contribute to the entrepreneurial orientation of a project activity.Using the second definition of employee entrepreneurship, the components of entrepreneurial orientation at the project level must be understood somewhat differently to allow for voluntary entrepreneurial acts by individual employees: 1. Risk taking: employees take risk without reference to managers.Employees might hide their risk taking if the employee perceives that others might not see their actions as legitimate.Employees may not perceive that their actions are risky (Adner and Levinthal, 2008;tinyurl.com 5. Autonomy: autonomy seeking by reducing uncertainty in their personal environment is one goal of employee entrepreneurship.Autonomy seeking may also be accompanied by making declarations and "authoring" relationships within the firm -that is, arguing for change and marshaling of others to support the change by the employee (Rindova et al., 2009;tinyurl.com/l2htbbh).
We therefore propose that the understanding of entrepreneurial orientation can be extended to development projects within firms by recasting the definition of its components to consider voluntary employee entrepreneurial actions and the potential for employees to act in this manner.

Obstacles to Employees Acting Entrepreneurially
Given this understanding of entrepreneurial orientation at the development project level and considering voluntary employee entrepreneurship, we now discuss www.timreview.ca

Enabling Employee Entrepreneurship in Large Technology Firms
Walter Miron and David Hudson some of the obstacles that employees may face.The product development and corporate entrepreneurship literature streams were reviewed for the purpose of identifying the obstacles to employees acting entrepreneurially in large technology firms.).Project management approaches that emphas-ize the elimination of risky activities through stage-gate models can also limit experimentation and preclude discovery of new value simply because it was not in the project plan (Goldenberg et al., 2001: tinyurl.com/k6ruh62;MacCormack et al., 2001: tinyurl.com/am6axfs).The obstacles to autonomy include management strategies that focus employees on top-down objectives and heavy-handed control to the exclusion of all other activities and discouraging initiative (Burgers et al., 2009: tinyurl.com/pbsaal3;Burgelman, 1984: tinyurl.com/qb4pxmk;Hornsby et al., 2009: tinyurl.com/lzhonhk;Narayanan et al., 2009: tinyurl.com/kvjxw5y).
This discussion of the obstacles identified in Table 1 leads us to consider how managers can help employees overcome the obstacles and act entrepreneurially.

Overcoming Obstacles to Employees Acting Entrepreneurially
Table 2 suggests how managers of large technology companies can help employees who are part of their development organizations act entrepreneurially.In essence, we are proposing that managers recognize and then address the obstacles to entrepreneurial orientation faced by employees on development projects.

Tool to Increase the Entrepreneurial Orientation of Development Projects
Managers may not be able to address all obstacles facing their employees, but they should focus on removing selected impediments to an improved entrepreneurial orientation for their projects.They may wish to address a small number of the most significant obstacles initially.This approach is consistent with the understanding from change management literature that reducing a few key counter-forces can be more effective than attempting to increase the pressure for the change or attempting to reduce all counter-forces at once (e.g., Coch et al., 2009;tinyurl.com/qhbx5tk).
We suggest that managers should determine which component of entrepreneurial orientation faces the largest obstacles and begin there.

Risk taking
Managers can make choices that create a risk-taking culture or microclimate within their projects by taking advantage of organization development techniques (e.g., Beer and Walton, 1987;tinyurl.com/pplm2mn

Enabling Employee Entrepreneurship in Large Technology Firms
Walter Miron and David Hudson used to lead such change, for example, by allowing for necessary discretion in project definition, staffing selection, and rewards structures.Discretion and delegation here can encourage employee innovation in activities that addresses uncertain and emerging needs.Similar flexibility can be applied at the project level to task prioritization, tool selection, allocation of resources, and so on.
Project staffing considerations begin with the selection of the key project leaders and other critical team members.These people should be selected according to their ability to interpret the strategic context of the project given the desire to also encourage employee entrepreneurial activities.Managers within projects should therefore be allowed discretion with hiring and work assignment of employees (Hornsby et al., 2009;tinyurl.com/ lzhonhk). Both MacCormack, Verganti, and Iansiti (2001;tinyurl.com/am6axfs) and Narayanan, Yang, and Zahra (2009;tinyurl.com/kvjxw5y)tell us that a project development manager should also seek team members and other partners who have high "generational experience", which enhances the team's ability to incorporate the type of new information that might arise from entrepreneurial effort.

Proactiveness
Managers can seek permission to link rewards for employees assigned to a development project to problem finding, problem solving, and knowledge development (Hornsby et al., 2009: tinyurl.com/lzhonhk;Burgelman, 1984: tinyurl.com/qb4pxmk).The allocation of differential rewards with the project team can therefore also be used to acknowledge and encourage employees who add value through entrepreneurial effort.

Innovation
Constraining the resources applied to new product development to the lowest level needed to produce a minimum viable product will focus resources on the task at hand and speed delivery (Fisher, 2012: tinyurl.com/ c8yb7rd;Goldenberg et al., 2001: tinyurl.com/k6ruh62).There is also evidence in the literature that constraints can stimulate entrepreneurial effort by employees (Rindova et al., 2009;tinyurl.com/l2htbbh).
Managers can protect and incubate ideas within their projects until they are ready for outsiders.Applying effective ideation reviews leads to better outcomes.Goldenberg, Lehmann, and Mazursky (2001;tinyurl.com/ k6ruh62) advise us that good ideation processes, which utilize early determinants for success at the idea, pro-ject, and market levels, must be employed to ensure success.Focusing reviews on solving problems for the customer, market readiness, and project scope are examples of early determinants that can be used.This same guidance can be applied at the project level to assess employee ideas and to assess their entrepreneurial potential within the project team rather than referring to external authorities or architects.

Competitive aggressiveness
Knowledge created and captured through project development must be integrated back into the firm, and therefore, managers can define a control mechanism to ensure knowledge capture (Burgelman, 1984: tinyurl.com/ qb4pxmk;Burgers et al., 2009: tinyurl.com/pbsaal3;Narayanan et al., 2009: tinyurl.com/kvjxw5y).Managers must create or encourage forums for knowledge sharing among project employees and provide vehicles for knowledge capture.

Autonomy
Managers can provide time for individual employees to act entrepreneurially and ensure that rewards account for such initiative.Managers can also recognize that employees will select tools, orchestrate work with others, and take other steps to take control and reduce uncertainty with the result that they create greater value within the project (Rindova et al., 2009;tinyurl.com/ l2htbbh).

Conclusion
In seeking to encourage technology entrepreneurship in large incumbent technology firms, this article provides a framework that managers can use to support employees acting entrepreneurially.The highlights of the tool developed are: 1.The structure of the tool is based on entrepreneurial orientation literature that argues that firms can be more or less configured or predisposed to being entrepreneurial.We have adapted the entrepreneurial orientation literature to address how managers can encourage and capture entrepreneurial effort to improve the performance of their development projects.
2. We presented the obstacles and solutions to the obstacles to employees acting entrepreneurially by considering the activities of employees working on development projects.Enabling Employee Entrepreneurship in Large Technology Firms

Walter Miron and David Hudson
3. There are many potential obstacles to employees acting entrepreneurially.We propose that development project managers address a subset of the obstacles to initiate change.Managers can identify the key obstacles to entrepreneurial activity by considering the five components of entrepreneurial orientation as presented in the framework in this article.
We have focused on the relationship between the five entrepreneurial orientation components and project development performance.In addition to examining the project level rather than the firm, we have considered employee entrepreneurship motivated by a desire to increase control and reduce uncertainty.Emancipation -or actions to increase their own control in an uncertain environment -adds a new perspective to entrepreneurial orientation and offers an opportunity for further research into drivers for entrepreneurship within firms.Employees may be motivated to improve their own work environment at the same time as they create value for their firms.The implication is that a development project manager can encourage such employee entrepreneurship to improve their project's performance.

David
Hudson is a lecturer in information technology and innovation in the MBA program at Carleton University's Sprott School of Business in Ottawa, Canada.He is a Director of the Venus Cybersecurity Corporation and the Lead To Win entrepreneurship program, and he is the Chair of the Advisory Board for the Province of Ontario Centres of Excellence Information, Communication, and Digital Media Sector.David also consults with F500 firms on innovation management.David's doctoral research at Carleton focused on IT consumerization and how employees create value for themselves and their firms when they "BYOD".Previously, he was the Vice President for advanced research and development at a large technology firm and has had an extensive career in technology development and product line management.David received Bachelor's and Master's degrees in Systems Design Engineering from the University of Waterloo, Canada.

Enabling Employee Entrepreneurship in Large Technology Firms
). Entrepreneurially oriented structures within projects can be

Table 1 .
Obstacles to employees acting entrepreneurially in development projects of large technology firms

Table 1 (
continued).Obstacles to employees acting entrepreneurially in development projects of large technology firms

Table 2 .
Suggestions on how development managers in large technology companies can help employees in development projects act entrepreneurially

Table 2 (continued).
Suggestions on how development managers in large technology companies can help employees in development projects act entrepreneurially